The mind body distinction is a myth derived from philosophers such as Plato Essay Example For Students

The mind body distinction is a myth derived from philosophers such as Plato Essay If this is true then mind is all that exists, raising the question, if we are not there to perceive something does it really exist? Idealism, whilst it is difficult to disprove, is largely rejected as most believe there is a real material world out there that can be known. The philosopher Gilbert Ryle, a materialist, takes a reductionist view of the mind body approach. Ryle, in his book The Concept of Mind (1949) described the dualist theory of the mind as a category mistake. This would be like visiting Old Trafford and asking where Manchester United Football Club is, the club is not simply the ground but the team, the staff etc. We will write a custom essay on The mind body distinction is a myth derived from philosophers such as Plato specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The club is a sum total of all these things and does not exist as a separate entity. Ryle here uses the example of a university. In the same way there is no mind that exists above and beyond the sum of total mental activities. Like Ryle, John Hick is a materialist believing that person is a psycho-somatic unity and rejects the view that the soul is separate from the body. However, Hick does not abandon belief in life after death, but believes in replica theory that God is held to create in another space an exact copy of the person who died on earth (Hick illustrates this with the example of John Smith). The advantage of this is that it bypasses the complexities of asking how soul and body relates. The person who survived death would be recognised as the one who died and would have the same memories as the deceased. However Hick has been criticised for not taking into account the difference between being the same person and being an identical person. The former implies one to one copies, the latter the possibility of more than one copy. Richard Dawkins might be described as a biological materialist, believing that any evidence of divine activity is nothing more than an illusion. As a biological materialist, Dawkins holds the view that life amounts to bytes of digital information contained in DNA. He holds that the soul is nothing more than a mythological conception, invented by primitive people for and believed in by the weak-minded, stifling creative endeavour. Rather than being enfleshed souls, Dawkins believes that there is simply no such thing as a soul there is no spirit driven life force. life is just bytes and bytes of digital information Dawkins River out of Eden. Dawkins view, rather depressingly, is that living creatures are nothing more than survival machines with a program to replicate. It could be argued here that this replaces the spiritual concept of the soul with a more modern myth as. It could be said that the evolutionary drive to propagate the digital database that did the programming could be called the life force that drives the universe; Aquinas might simply add the phrase this is what everyone understands to be God. The body-soul distinction was first formulated as philosophical doctrine in ancient Greece it was baptised into Christianity, ran through the medieval period, and entered the modern world with the public status of a self-evident truth when it was refined by Descartes in the 17th century. Since World War 2, however the Cartesian mind-matter dualism, having been taken for granted for many centuries, has been strongly criticised (John Hick). However whilst, the mind body distinction, first doctrined by Plato and revised by Descartes has been widely criticised in modern times, it can be claimed that it is no more a myth than the theories of the likes of Hick and Dawkins, that have attempted to displace it.

Effective Communication and Collaboration Among Personality Types and Learning Styles Essay Example

Effective Communication and Collaboration Among Personality Types and Learning Styles Essay Example Effective Communication and Collaboration Among Personality Types and Learning Styles Essay Effective Communication and Collaboration Among Personality Types and Learning Styles Essay Melding of the Minds 1 Melding of the Minds: Effective Communication and Collaboration among Personality Types and Learning Styles Foundations for General Education and Professional Success/GEN200 Melding of the Minds 2 Melding of the Minds: Effective Communication and Collaboration among Personality Types and Learning Styles One of the challenges of working with any team lies in building relationships with the various members of the team, and to form a cohesive unit that communicates and works well together. It can be difficult to convey thoughts and ideas to those with personalities and learning styles different from oneself. However, with a little effort one can put this diversity to good use. Dr. Joyce Bishop, co-author of Keys to College Studying condensed personality styles into four basic groupings; the thinker, giver, organizer, and adventurer. Each individual will have characteristics from all of these groupings but will generally have dominance in a single personality type. This allows those who are aware of personality types to recognize and expand upon common characteristics with those they are working with. For example, the thinker is most comfortable with time to reflect individually on ideas presented, whereas the giver and adventurer enjoy working with groups; however, being familiar with personality styles, the thinker and the adventurer have the common trait of considering problems via non-traditional approaches. The giver will typically be the peace keeper in any group as they dislike conflict, and are good with communicating and negotiating. In addition, the organizer is likely to create flash cards to study by, which the giver can use to capitalize on their traits and teach the organizer. By having a variety of personality styles on a team it keeps balance, and allows various perspectives to be brought to the project. Similar to personality types, every individual has their own way of taking in and retaining information, referred to as a learning style. A learning style can be defined as A set of characteristics which make learning effective for an individual (Seckel, 2007, 22). It may seem that these varied learning styles may clash and create conflict working on a team together; Melding of the Minds 3 however, they can, in fact, complement each other nicely. Verbal learners will benefit from reciting the information they are learning to retain the information, the visual learner can build on this technique by listening to the recitation and putting the information into a word web, or arrangement he or she can use to visualize the details. Adding someone with a logical/mathematical learning style into this group adds another beneficial dimension. Logical learners and the visual learners complement each other with their ability to chart or graph the data or facts they are studying. The logical learner can see relationships between the facts, and the verbal learner can put these logical relationships back into a cohesive written document for presentation. The verbal learner will be able to write clear papers, the visual learner will add a visual appeal to presentations, and the logical learner will order the layout in an organized and clear manner. A well formed team, consisting of i ndividuals with a variety of personality types and learning styles can capitalize on the strengths of each individual, and allow each person to stretch him or herself to improve on weaker traits. By melding a group from these differences, the work product is likely to be more rounded, taking into account various perspectives. It will also produce more concise and interesting presentations. Although conflicts and difficulties may arise among the group, the benefits of multiple perspectives, thoughts, and ideas, greatly outweigh those difficulties. Melding of the Minds References 4 Seckel, S. (2007). Characteristics and Responsibilities of Successful e-Learners. Journal of Instruction Delivery Systems, 21(2), 22-26. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.

Analysis of Income Tax Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Analysis of Income Tax - Assignment Example   There are quite a few changes that have been made to the original figure provided in the scenario, the reason for the changes made are listed below: Note 1: These incomes have previously been included in the gross profit, originally these incomes should not have been added to the gross profit as these incomes are not related to Thomas’s business, and these incomes are related to his private investments. These incomes will be catered to in the total taxable income section that will shortly follow and the gain on disposal of the machinery will be discussed in the capital gains section. Note2: Thomas owns the business and thus all the profit he earns from his business is his own, he is not allowed to devote a sum namely as his salary that will qualify as a tax expense. Note 3: Council Tax for Thomas’s house is not related to his business Note 4: Replacement of house front door is his private expenditure which cannot be included in his business expenditures. Note 5: It has been provided in the scenario that the car is 40% used for Thomas’s private use, thus the expense on patrol will be deducted by 40%, it has been assumed that the patrol used is on the car that is partly used by Thomas. Note 6: Repairs to the car will also be reduced by 40%, as the car is also used for private purposes. Note 7: Insurance and Road fund tax will also be reduced respectively according to the private use of the car. Note 8: Subscription to the Liberal-Democrat Party will not qualify as a business expense as it does not relate to the business, it is a private expense. Note 9: Providing donation to son’s school is a private expenditure, it cannot be added to the business account. Note 10: The depreciation that has been deducted from the net profit is used by using the accountancy principles; however this figure cannot be used for tax purposes. Note 11: Flowers taken home by Thomas is regarded as a withdrawal from the business, the cost of the flowers are not allowed to be added to the cost of the flowers sold by Thomas, the cost of the flowers which are calculated to be 325 will be added back to the net profit originally calculated. Note 12: The depreciation is replaced by the taxation depreciation that is known as capital allowance, this allowance is calculated by using the guidelines that are provided by the governments of different countries, the rule here used is based on United Kingdom guidelines (HMRC). The detailed calculation of the capital allowance is shown below: Annual Investment Allowance:? Machinery Purchased 20,000 Excavating Equipment 21,000 Computer Equipment used for Inventory Control 8,000 Total Annual Investment Allowance 49,000 According to the guidelines provided by the United Kingdom HM Revenue and Customs, a business can claim Annual Investment Allowance; this opportunity has been provided to the businesses to encourage them  to invest in machinery.  

House of Tata Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

House of Tata - Case Study Example The group companies would have been effective in purchasing the shares from Tata Sons. However, collusion between the companies with regard to the purchase of the exchange share would have violated the law. According to the media, the plan by Ratan of increasing the equity holdings would have raised concerns regarding the overvaluation of the shares. The deal lacked the benefit for companies that invested in the initiative (Lynch 56). The initiative by Ratan of selling 20 percent stake in the TIL to colossal of the Hong Kong-based Jardine Matheson group. This was a good idea since the firm was significantly influential throughout Asia. This deal added value by pushing the share capital of TIL up by Rs. 119, and this enhanced the venture start-ups promoted through the TIL. Ratan anticipated of Jardine contributing to the expertise in most business activities like distribution and retailing, hotels, engineering, real estate, financial services and construction. This move added value to TIL since the two companies had similar interests in exploration of potential synergy in their financial businesses. This necessitated creation of major networks for distribution of cars. Jardine believed that Ratan was careful thinker and planner, with the long-term decisions being spot-on. Though Ratan admitted of the joint venture not reading the market accurately, it was worthwhile for Jardine having stakes in Ratan (Wiersema and Joseph 65). Tata was considering several steps they hoped would give the group strong collective identity. This aimed at making Tata brand take responsibility of promoting unified brand that could have been used by all members that subscribe to the Brand Equity Scheme. Every company could have derived the benefits of promoting the Tata brand and hence enhance the Tata affiliation. The Tata sons would have required annual net income contribution of each company to meet the development costs, protect and promote the brand. The idea was good since each co mpany had to pay contribution based on the degree of brand association. Also, the involved companies had to pay the code of conduct in ensuring uniform ethical and high quality business practices. The participating companies must recognize the outstanding representation of the Tata values (Wren 98). The advantage of this initiative is that most of these countries encouraged Tata adopt a globalized and strong corporate campaign. Though the companies wanted to take advantage of the ward and opportunities off the competitive threats that emerged dramatically due to the expansion of the Indian economy, the Tata son used the fee paid by the companies in building a national and international group brand. This also enabled them emphasize on core ethics and values through advertisements. However, the domestic brand promotion would have cost the company extra Rs. 300 million yearly. The scheme also generated the debates on investment in media and public. The scheme was slated to be retroacti vely effective and was deferred in order to incorporate the additional features depending on the evolving views. This led to some Tata shareholders resenting the attempt by the Tata sons of asserting itself beyond the limits of the ordinary shareholder. Others doubted of the brand recognition offering immediate benefit to their companies while still others claimed that it was not necessarily the Tata name that promoted their success. Most companies, which benefited from the use of Tata name,

Self-Introductory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Self-Introductory - Essay Example Some days, I feel that all people are the same. They have the same expressions, same fashion sense, and same body language. But at other times, I feel that my world is filled with so many extreme people. They are all different many ways: their dressing sense, their cultures, their races and their religion. If all of them were to observe me as I observe them, I wonder what they would feel. Would they see an Asian or would they see a person with observant eyes and a passion to discover the world and the people within? Most of the times, I feel that they see only an Asian and stereotype me as a hardworking and business minded person. But how wrong they would be! Sometimes, I imagine myself to be the character of a book by Haruki Murakami. Coming to America in some ways was a journey into one of the books of Murakami. I saw a world quite unlike my own with people having different ideas and different opinions. I like to myself as a character that could change people and their surroundings through his thoughts. If I had such a power, what would I not do? Sitting in this cafà ©, drinking my coffee, I am getting so many ideas. I would make the roadside beggar find a diamond in his hat that the lady who gave him five cents accidentally dropped. But would this make him happy or eventually sad when he gambled it all away? Or I would unleash the barking dog on the old lady who is barely able to walk. Would the dog bite her or would she gain a new energy that she never knew was there all along? On a more global platform, I would become the assistant of Larry Page. Working alongside Larry, I would learn a lot and later apply it to my father’s business that I intend to make as strong as that of Larry Page, Steve Jobs or Bill Clinton. As I sit near the cafà ©, making my coffee last longer, I realize that what I just wrote was typical me. I let my world run on imagination; I do not get up to change my world. This alas is the tragedy of my life.

Old Age An Incurable Disease Health And Social Care Essay

Old Age An Incurable Disease Health And Social Care Essay Health is a central issue and fundamental human right associated with increase in longevity of population ageing. The maintenance of health status and functioning with age is a critical factor impacting upon many other aspects of the lives of aged, their family and communities. Ageing is a natural process which is inevitable and thus being the end of the human life cycle. Perceiving ageing with fear is recent phenomenon, it seems to be increasing each day, as world become more complex and moreover ageing is associated with decline in functional ability which affects all aged peoples. Aged have limited regenerative abilities and more prone to disease, syndrome and sickness than adults. Old age is an incurable disease, You do not heal old age but You protect, promote and extend it. James Sterling Ross The number of persons above the age of 60 years is fastly growing, especially in India. India is the second most popular country in the world has 76.6 million people at over the age of 60, constituting above 7.7% of total population. The most obvious manifestations of old age are changes in physical appearance such as wrinkles appearing on the face, graying of hair, restriction of movements and more prone to chronic illness. Too frequently, older adults suffer from the emotional side effects of ageing such as feeling of distress and anxiety regarding their future, loneliness and social isolation. The major area of concern is the health of the aged with multiple medical and psychosocial problems which have an impact on functional ability of aged. Functional disability in the aged is defined as an acquired difficulty in performing basic everyday tasks or more complex tasks needed for independent living Davidson. (2011). The most common problem confronting aged people is functional disability that leads to dependency and institutionalization. The functional disability in the aged includes three dimensions: physical, emotional, and mental performance. The population of functionally disabled aged is growing rapidly. The number of aged who suffered with functional disability due to arthritis, stroke, cognitive impairment, anxiety and emotional distress is expected to increase at least 80 percent by 2049. Functional disability limits the autonomy of older people, introduces dependence, and reduces the quality of life and increase the risk of nursing home admission. Studies have shown that the proportion of aged persons who cannot move and are confined to their bed or home ranges from 77 per 1000 in urban area and 84 per 1000 in rural areas. The family and community play a vital role in the care of a functionally disabled aged. The supportive care for aged with functional disability is the major concern which includes early rehabilitation with adequate nutrition, fluids, range of motion exercise, second hourly position changing; skin care and reviewing medical follow up. This will enable to prevent the development of complications such as infection, bed sore, constipation, movement incapability, urinary tract infection, deep vein thrombosis, muscle atrophy and contractures with resultant deformity in the aged. Studies shown that majority (70%) of the aged over 60 years with functional disability are expecting the need of care by the caregivers to perform their daily activities. Caregivers are the one who is always present with the aged client, satisfying their needs and solving their problems. The caregivers of the aged may be their spouse, childrens or some other paid caregivers. The involvement of caregivers in caring the aged ones has been a help to create a great confidence in the aged to perform some kind of activities of daily living and also it has profound effect on aged reaction to medical treatment, emotional adaptation and rehabilitation. To implement the care for aged it is necessary that caregivers must be aware of functional disability in the aged to provide supportive care. BACKGROUD OF THE STUDY: By reviewing the bureau report 2009, globally aged population will increase from 595 million to 2 billion, a four fold rise by 2050, in terms of proportion 10% in 2000, 15% by 2025 and rise to 21.6 % by 2050. Ageing population is an end product of demographic transition, the number of older adults aged above 60 years is increasing and they are becoming larger percentage of over all population. In India, it is estimated that the elderly population has grown from 12.6 million in 1901 to 80.93 million in 2010 and India is the second largest country comprising aged in the whole world and is likely to touch 300 million within next half century. Data available from India suggest that almost 50 per cent of the elderly suffer from chronic diseases with the prevalence of diseases increasing with rising age from 39 per cent in 60-64 years to 55 per cent in those older than 70 years. Research by the National institute of ageing reports that 80% of the aged are living with chronic conditions. Most of them are able to meet their own needs but only 25% of them require a special type of care. More than two third of the aged (22 %) live independently in a family setting. It is estimated that 10% of the aged need some form of long term care in the home. Prevalence of various functional disabilities gradually increases with advancing age, starts at the age of 60 years and cause a growing need for help especially after the age of 65 years. Ageing process and changes in life style pattern such as chronic alcoholism, smoking, use of tobacco, sedentary life style, obesity, lack of exercise and improper nutrition during the young age has led a risk of chronic disease conditions among elderly population which results in 70% of disability making elderly more dependent on family and caregivers. Eden. (2000) stated that old age is still perceived as a casual agent for seeking dependence in performing daily activities and the factors frequently causing dependency are age, gender, falls, illness etc. A large population of todays ageing is dependent on the family members for their health maintenance. Approximately 54% of the aged above 60 years are dependent, 24% of them are partially dependent and 22% of them are independent in performing their daily activities. The dependence on others for meeting the various needs will generate a felling of physiological and psychological dependence among the aged. The prevalence of unmet needs for functional disability in the aged due to vision problems is about 4.3%, 22.6% due to hearing problem, 32.5% due to immobility, 50% due to cognitive impairment, 62% due to difficulties in activities of daily living, 35% due to chronic illness, 25% due to psychological and social problems among those aged 60 and older. The involvement of caregivers in caring the aged will help to create a great confidence in aged to perform some kind of activities of daily living. Approximately 4.1 million caregivers are involved in intense care giving. Hence the care giving is not only the responsibility of health professionals but also the family members, relatives, friends and even non- professionals who cares for the aged in home. NEED FOR THE STUDY: Advances in technology and the combination of high fertility and declining mortality in twentieth century have resulted in rapid and large number of aged people worldwide especially in developing countries. In every country, the proportion of people aged over 60 years is growing faster than any other age group. Ageing causes numerous changes in the physiology of human beings which decreases functional ability. This in turn makes them dependent on caregiver. Inadequate care results in falls and depression among older adults. Among the aged, the focus is not only on reducing disease related morbidity and mortality, but also on promoting optimal health and ensuring disability-free years. The literature states that the effect of functional disability will have an effect on quality of life among aged, as the aged become dependent where the caregivers should play a major role in taking care of such aged person. Caregivers are the one who is always present with the aged client, satisfying their needs and solving their problems. It is necessary that caregivers must be aware of functional disability in the aged to provide supportive care. Investigator, during her clinical posting and community postings came across many aged with functional disability such as loss of control in body movements, functional immobility and associated coexisting illness who were dependent on their caregivers for their daily activities. While interacting with their caregivers the investigator came to know that they are not having adequate knowledge regarding the effects of functional disability and the care needed for the aged. Investigator felt that, aged with functional disability need some form of long term care in the home. If the caregivers had the knowledge they would help the aged in taking care of their health to prevent further complications. So the investigator felt the need to assess the knowledge regarding functional disability in the aged and its supportive care among caregivers to develop insight on the needs of older adults. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM: A study to assess the knowledge on functional disability in the aged and its supportive care among caregivers at selected settings in Chennai OBJECTIVES: To assess the knowledge on functional disability in the aged and its supportive care among caregivers at selected settings in Chennai. To associate the knowledge regarding functional disability in the aged and its supportive care with selected demographic variables among caregivers at selected settings in Chennai. OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS: ASSESS: In this study assess refers to the process of gathering information as expressed by the caregivers in response to the semi-structured interview schedule and analyzing it with the statistical method. KNOWLEDGE: In this study knowledge refers to the awareness about functional disability and its supportive care as expressed by caregivers as response to the semi-structured interview schedule and analyzing to the statistical method. AGED: In this study the aged refers to the people above 60 years who are available in the hospital and community. CAREGIVERS: In this study the caregivers refers to the family members, relatives and paid non professional persons in the age group from 21 years to 65 years who are taking care of the aged. FUNCTIONAL DISABILITY: In this study the functional disability refers to deviations from the normal or customary function of an individual within any of the three dimensions i.e, physical, emotional or social skills necessary for an independent life. SUPPORTIVE CARE: In this study the supportive care refers to the care which is provided to support the functionally disabled aged in meeting their daily needs. SETTINGS: In this study setting refers to the place or type of surroundings from where the sample is collected i.e, community and hospital setting. ASSUMPTIONS: The knowledge on the functional disability in the aged and the supportive care among the caregivers will vary from adequate to inadequate. The knowledge on functional disability in the aged and the supportive care among caregivers will be influenced by the selected demographic variables. DELIMITATION: The samples are the caregivers of the aged available in the community setting i.e, Thoraipakkam, Navalur and those admitted to the two hospitals i.e, V.H.S multi speciality and Dr.Kamakshi memorial hospital. Period of data collection is limited to one month. PROJECTED OUTCOME: The results of the study will project the knowledge levels of whom regarding various functional disabilities in the aged and the supportive care needed. The knowledge levels will highlight the need for educating the caregivers on various problems of functional disability By assessing this need, we can formulate the various methods of educating the caregivers on common problems of functional disability and it supportive care in the aged. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK A concept is an image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea. Conceptual frameworks are interrelated concepts or abstractions that are assembled by virtue of their relevance to a common theme Polit and Beck (2001). It is a device that helps to stimulate research and the extension of knowledge by providing both direction and impetus. A framework serves as a spring board for scientific advancement. A conceptual framework serves as a guide, to identify systematically and precisely defined relationship among the variables. It gives an idea to the main view and common theme of the research that is a visual diagram by which the researcher explains the area of interest. MODEL: The conceptual framework adopted for the study is based on PENDERS HEALTH PROMOTION MODEL (1987). Health promotion is, directed towards increasing the level of well being and self actualization in a given individual or group. This model focuses on the three aspects, Modifying factors. Cognitive perceptual factors. Participating in health promoting activities. MODIFYING FACTORS: It refers to the situational, maturational, socio cultural, personal and biological factors. In this study, it refers to the demographic variables like age, gender, marital status, educational status, occupational status, family income, type of family, any previous experience of taking care of the aged, relationship with the client, history of any present diseases in aged person, degree of physical dependency, hours spent in the care of the aged person, any previous information on functional disability in the aged and its supportive care. COGNITIVE PERCEPTUAL FACTORS: In this model, cognitive perceptual factors have important motivational significance. These variables can be modified through nursing actions. In this study it refers to the knowledge of caregivers regarding functional disability in the aged and its supportive care in the aspects of disability in the aged, vision problems, hearing problems, loss of control in body movements, memory impairment , functional immobility, activities of daily living, importance of exercises, coexisting illness, psychological problems and family support. PARTICIPATING IN HEALTH PROMOTING ACTIVITIES: Participation of caregivers in this study is considered as one of the health promoting behavior as this will help the caregivers to be aware of their existing knowledge on functional disability in the aged and its supportive care, which enhance through the advices given. CUES FOR ACTION: The responses of the caregivers regarding their knowledge on functional disability in the aged and its supportive care provide cues for nursing action like reinforcement and also creating awareness in terms of early rehabilitation of functionally disabled aged with adequate nutrition, fluids, range of motion exercise, second hourly position changing; skin care, reviewing medical follow up, providing assistive devices, assisting in daily activities, emotional support, engaging in social activities, promoting comfort and psychological support. MODIFYING COGNITIVE PERCEPTUAL PARTICIPATING IN HEALTH FACTORS FACTORS PROMOTING BEHAVIOUR KNOWLEDGE OF CAREGIVERS REGARDING FUNCTIONAL DISABILITY IN THE AGED AND ITS SUPPORTIVE CARE: Information regarding health promoting behavior includes, Disability in the aged Vision problems Hearing problems Loss of control in body movements Memory impairment Functional immobility Activities of daily living Importance of exercises Coexisting illness Psychological problems Family support Participation of caregivers in the study and sharing information regarding functional disability in the aged and its supportive care DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES: Age Gender Marital status Educational status Occupation Family income Type of family Relationship with the client Any previous experience of taking care of the aged Hours spent in the care of the aged person Any previous information on functional disability in the aged and its supportive care History of any present diseases in aged person Degree of physical dependency Reinforcement Adequate knowledge Eliciting the knowledge of caregivers regarding functional disability and its supportive care through semi-structured interview schedule Moderate knowledge Inadequate knowledge Cues for nursing action FIG.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK BASED ON PENDERS HEALTH PROMOTION MODEL (1987) CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Review of literature aids the researcher to understand what already known in relation to problem of interest and what remains to be known. It helps to plan and conduct the study in a systematic manner. It is defined as reviewing and analyzing the work of literature in relation to the specified topic in research Simai Haji Mati. This chapter deals with selected studies and articles which are related to the objectives of the proposed study. For the present study an extensive review of literature relevant to study was undertaken and is presented under the following headings. Part I: General information about ageing, functional disability in and its supportive care. Part II: Studies related to functional disability and its supportive care in the aged. Part III: Studies related to knowledge of caregivers of aged on functional problems and its supportive care. Part I: General information about ageing, functional disability and its supportive care. Ageing is the process of optimizing opportunities for health, participation and security in order to enhance quality of life as people age. It applies to both individuals and population groups. Ageing allows people to realize their potential for physical, social, and mental well-being throughout the life course. According to Stephan John. (2009) Ageing is denoted as, Young old 65-74 yrs. Middle old 75-84 yrs. Older old 85 and older Darnton. (1995),emphasized that quality of old age people depends mainly on psychological well being, perceived health status with independency in meeting self care needs. Normal Ageing process: The ageing process creates profound changes that there will be 1-2% decline in functional ability per year. Normal Ageing brings about the changes in physiological, Social and Psychological well being Judith A. McCann. (2003) Physiological aging process: Changes in body composition, reduction in bone mass and strength, reduction in blood volume, reduced motility of the large bowel, changes in autonomic function, reduced elasticity of eye lens, high tone hearing impairment and reduced motor and sensory function. Social and psychological aging process: Feeling of distress, anxiety regarding their future, loneliness, depression, grief, sadness, and social isolation. However, some of the above effects of ageing can be slowed by engaging in interventions that improves outcome in the health events. Functional disability in the aged is defined as an acquired difficulty in performing basic everyday tasks or more complex tasks needed for independent living. It is an important health indicator in the aged, jeopardizing quality of life and causing heavy social impact with long-term institutionalization and increased use of medical care. Reducing functional disability in the aged is a major challenge for public health- Frazil.(2005), performance in functional disability includes three dimensions: physical, emotional, and mental performance. Physical performance relates to the bodys sensory and motor function. Emotional performance is measured through the individuals adaptation to various events in their lives. Mental performance is evaluated through tests that measure the individuals intellectual and rational capacity. The causative factors for functional disability are as follows: Vision problems, hearing problems, loss of control in body movements, memory impairment, functional immobility, difficulties in performing daily activities, lack of physical exercises, coexisting illness, psychological problems and family support. The effects of fundamental disability include walking, lifting objects, climbing stairs, reading standard-size print and hearing disturbances, short-term memory loss, disturbance in daily activities, disorientation to time and place, reducing mobility and social activities. The care necessary for the effects of functional disability are early rehabilitation with adequate nutrition, fluids, range of motion exercise, second hourly position changing; skin care, reviewing medical follow up, providing assistive devices, assisting in daily activities, emotional support, engaging in social activities, promoting comfort and psychological support. By over viewing the various informations regarding functional disability in the aged will thereby helps the caregivers to prevent further complications and also provide supportive care for the aged. Part III: Studies related to functional disability and its supportive care in the aged. Felix. (2001) stated that disability is systemic; no body system is immune to its effect. From his statement it is evidenced that meeting the self care activities and physical maintenance are essential for managing the effects of disability. Nandi Manju. (2002) stated that as ageing increases there will be decline in functional ability, which is compromised with good nutrition, assistive support, with psychosocial concerns and with medical care. Steffen Been. (2005) proposed a statement that there will de decline in cognitive and functional abilities of old age due to continuous degeneration of numerous brain cells which aid them to obtain a fully dependable care from caretakers. Frey. (2006) stated that decreased level of physical activity and growing number of chronic illness that often increase with age, frequently create vicious circle of illness, and related functional disabilities that has adverse effect on activities of daily living. In this statement, he highlighted that decrease in functional ability makes the individual to become more dependent and need constant support and supervision. McDougall.(2006) conducted a cohort study to identify the prevalence of memory impairment among 265 older adults by means of survey method and the results showed that 29.4% (78 individuals) of them had memory impairment in the later adult period .He also concluded that those with declining memory are less aware of their deficits in meeting activities of daily living. Human research center for ageing.(2006) stated that immobilization, loss of control in body movements and falls need not to be the consequence of living to advanced age all this may be prevented through muscle strengthening and range of motion exercise which has reported benefits of spontaneous activity by the old age people. Stark.et.al.(2007) conducted a correlational study to assess the health status of functionally disabled aged under the supervision of institution and family by means of health indicator assessment scale and the results showed that the older adults who receiving the care such as adequate nutrition, fluids, range of motion exercise, second hourly position changing, skin care, reviewing medical follow up and participating in family activities are in the family are having moderate health status than the older adults in the institutionalized care. Zbylut j. (2007) conducted a national survey to evaluate the health status of older persons and prevalence of common health problems among elderly above 60 years. The survey results shows that a large number of older persons were suffering from one of more age-associated chronic diseases like osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, dental problems, visual problems, cognitive impairment and depression which may impair their functional ability and quality of life. Kart berg. et.al (2010) conducted a descriptive study to assess the functional ability among the aged by means of questionnaire in the aspects of physical, mental and social abilities and the study concluded that low functional ability lead to dependency and stressful environment for the aged which again increase the risk of complications. Lawton and Brody.(2010) described that assessment of functional ability often includes evaluation of individuals ability to carry out activities of daily living which is an early sensitive indicator to promote quality of life of old age people. From the above studies the investigator identifies the prevalence, impact of functional disability in the aged and the important aspects of supportive care for the aged. It helped to formulate the need for the study and also helped to identify the major areas which should be included while formulating the objectives. Part IV: Studies related to knowledge of caregivers of aged on selected functional problems and its supportive care. Skalska.et.al. (2007) conducted a cohort study with the aim to evaluate the knowledge on various areas of functional problems among 62 caregivers of aged at risk by means of questionnaire and the samples are (78% family members and 22% non related) results revealed that only 41% caregivers had knowledge on functional problems such as (vision, hearing, and memory problems in the aged) and 59% were not aware of functional problems mainly in cognitive and social problems. Chelma.et.al. (2009) conducted a explorative study to identify the measures on management of functional problems of elderly among 629 caregivers by means of check list, the result revealed that 47% of them were aware on the common measures and 53% were unaware on common measures on management of functional problems among elderly. Through these studies the investigator understands the importance of caregivers awareness on functional disability in the aged and its supportive care which helped me to formulate the tool. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This study was undertaken to assess the knowledge on functional disability in the aged and its supportive care among caregivers at selected settings in Chennai. This chapter on methodology includes research approach, research design, setting, population, criteria for selection of sample, sample size, sampling technique, data collection tool, development and description of the tool, validity of the tool, pilot study, data collection procedure and plan for data analysis. RESEARCH DESIGN A non experimental descriptive design was chosen for this study. RESEARCH APPROACH Research approach was descriptive in nature. SETTING OF THE STUDY The setting of the study was chosen on the basis of feasibility, in terms of availability of adequate samples from hospitals and community. Voluntary Health Services Hospital, Adyar, Chennai. Dr.Kamakshi Memorial Hospital, Pallikaranai, Chennai. Community- Thoraipakkam and Navalur. POPULATION FOR THE STUDY The population of the study consists of the caregivers of the aged in selected hospitals and in the community. SAMPLE OF THE STUDY The caregivers of the aged within the selected hospital and in the community who have fulfilled the inclusion criteria. CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF SAMPLES Inclusion criteria: The caregivers who are taking care of the aged with functional disability. The caregivers in the age group of above 20 yrs. Both male and female caregivers of aged people. Caregivers who are willing to participate. Exclusion criteria: The caregivers who are included in the pilot study. The caregivers of the aged who are independent in doing their daily activities. Care givers who do not understand and communicate in Tamil or English. SAMPLE SIZE The sample size of this study is 60 caregivers of the aged people at selected settings, Chennai. SAMPLING TECHNIQUE Purposive sampling technique is used in this study. DATA COLLECTION TOOL The data was collected from the caregivers using semi-structured interview schedule. DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOL The tool prepared in this study was based on the information gathered from the review of literature; objectives of the study and the personal and professional experience of the investigator. It consists of two parts Part I: It consists of demographic variables like age, gender, marital status, educational status, occupation, family income, type of family, any previous experience of taking care of the aged, relationship with the client, hours spent in the care of the aged person, any previous information on functional disability and supportive care, history of any present disease in aged person and degree of physical dependency of the aged. Part II: It consists of 11 questions which have three parts to assess the knowledge on functional disability in the aged and its supportive care among caregivers using semi-structured interview schedule. SCORING PROCEDURE: In part II: In first question, part (A) the correct option carries one mark; the incorrected option carries zero mark. In part (B) each option carries one mark. For all other question from (2 to 11), The first part of each question carries one mark for each YES option and no mark for NO options. And the second and third part of each question carries one mark for each option. Thus a total of 101=10 for first part of question 461=46 for second part question 381=38 for third part question Total of 94 marks will be awarded under the knowledge regarding functional disability in aged and its supportive care among caregivers. It is interpreted in percentage as: Adequate knowledge : Greater than 75% Moderate knowledge : 50-75% Inadequate knowledge : Less than 50% VALIDITY OF THE TOOL The tool used in this study was validated by the experts in the field of general medicine and Medical surgical nursing. PILOT STUDY The pilot study was conducted in Voluntary health service hospital, Dr.Kamakshi memorial hospital, Thoraipakkam and Navalur community area, Chennai from 20.7.12 to 25.7.12 after obtaining the permission from the respective heads of the organization. Totally 6 caregivers (2 from each of the hospitals and community area) who fulfilled the inclusion criteria were selected purposively, to generalize the study. A

The Influence of Economic, Political, and Social Factors on Firms Essay

The Influence of Economic, Political, and Social Factors on Firms The long controversy exist over the influence of economic , political and social factors on the success of the firms. With many economist believing that economic factors such as management structure contribute to the success of the firm. Karl Marx (1976)[1] and other economist argued that economic factors are not the sole determiner of firm’s success. Marx believes that political, social and economics plays a part in making the firm to be effective. So the following paper will address the question of whether political, economic or social factors contribute to success of the firms. The discussion of economic, political and social factors will be based on the argument between Marglin and Landers. Competition creates a spur for companies to innovate, improve efficiency and drive down prices. Competition is a model of industrial structure in which many firms compete in the supply of a single product in a competitive environment where only the fittest or most affective firm succeeds. Before going further I will like to emphasise the competition I’m referring to is perfect competition where new firms can enter the market if it appears profitable[2]. Because of insignificant barrier to entry firms are faced with challenge to innovate and to improve efficiency. As stated by the neo-classical theory of the firm it is in the interest of the firm to keep the marginal cost as low as possible. The need to lower the average total cost persuaded firms to look for efficient form of production. Competition from rivals forced firms to adopt management systems that will allow them to outperform their rivals .I clearly agree with Landers that the new management system emerged because its effectiveness[3]. Firms adopted the putting out system because it allows them to have edge over other firms The creation of the factories overcome the control that workers had over their work in the early phase of capitalist through the cottage system. Under the cottage system workers were working from home and the domestic craftsmen was master of his time. The lack supervision under the cottage industry meant that workers had no control over how much worker produced per day. Firms were not benefiting because it was easy for workers to steal raw materials. As stated by Karl Marx and the o... ... as mentioned by Marglin both social and economic factors play a part , but they depend on competition .For example in the factory system firms exploited workers because of competition if I wasn’t because of competitions firms wouldn’t have exploited workers. [1] Landers ,†what do bosses really do ?p.591 [2] Landers ,†what do bosses really do ?p.591 [3] Marglin â€Å"What do bosses do ?p.18 [4]Marglin â€Å"what do bosses do ?p.16-17 [5] Marglin what do bosses do? [6] Chandler (1992)managerial enterprise and competitive capabilities, business history .p16 [7] Elger ,T & Fairbrother , P (1992)fordism and flexibility .p.40 REFERENECE LISTS Chandler , A .(1992),†managerial enterprise and competitive capabilities; Business history review , vol.58,no .4. Elger, T & Fairbrother ,P.(1992),’inflexible flexibility ‘ in N. Gilbert et al (eds) Fordism and flexibility :Division and Change(London , Macmillan) Lazonick,w.(1991), Business organization and the myth the economy. Landers, D.(1986), â€Å"What do bosses really do† The journal of economic history Marglin.S.(1976)’What do bosses do ‘ .In A .Gorz (ed),The division of Labour (Brighton , Harvester) The Influence of Economic, Political, and Social Factors on Firms Essay The Influence of Economic, Political, and Social Factors on Firms The long controversy exist over the influence of economic , political and social factors on the success of the firms. With many economist believing that economic factors such as management structure contribute to the success of the firm. Karl Marx (1976)[1] and other economist argued that economic factors are not the sole determiner of firm’s success. Marx believes that political, social and economics plays a part in making the firm to be effective. So the following paper will address the question of whether political, economic or social factors contribute to success of the firms. The discussion of economic, political and social factors will be based on the argument between Marglin and Landers. Competition creates a spur for companies to innovate, improve efficiency and drive down prices. Competition is a model of industrial structure in which many firms compete in the supply of a single product in a competitive environment where only the fittest or most affective firm succeeds. Before going further I will like to emphasise the competition I’m referring to is perfect competition where new firms can enter the market if it appears profitable[2]. Because of insignificant barrier to entry firms are faced with challenge to innovate and to improve efficiency. As stated by the neo-classical theory of the firm it is in the interest of the firm to keep the marginal cost as low as possible. The need to lower the average total cost persuaded firms to look for efficient form of production. Competition from rivals forced firms to adopt management systems that will allow them to outperform their rivals .I clearly agree with Landers that the new management system emerged because its effectiveness[3]. Firms adopted the putting out system because it allows them to have edge over other firms The creation of the factories overcome the control that workers had over their work in the early phase of capitalist through the cottage system. Under the cottage system workers were working from home and the domestic craftsmen was master of his time. The lack supervision under the cottage industry meant that workers had no control over how much worker produced per day. Firms were not benefiting because it was easy for workers to steal raw materials. As stated by Karl Marx and the o... ... as mentioned by Marglin both social and economic factors play a part , but they depend on competition .For example in the factory system firms exploited workers because of competition if I wasn’t because of competitions firms wouldn’t have exploited workers. [1] Landers ,†what do bosses really do ?p.591 [2] Landers ,†what do bosses really do ?p.591 [3] Marglin â€Å"What do bosses do ?p.18 [4]Marglin â€Å"what do bosses do ?p.16-17 [5] Marglin what do bosses do? [6] Chandler (1992)managerial enterprise and competitive capabilities, business history .p16 [7] Elger ,T & Fairbrother , P (1992)fordism and flexibility .p.40 REFERENECE LISTS Chandler , A .(1992),†managerial enterprise and competitive capabilities; Business history review , vol.58,no .4. Elger, T & Fairbrother ,P.(1992),’inflexible flexibility ‘ in N. Gilbert et al (eds) Fordism and flexibility :Division and Change(London , Macmillan) Lazonick,w.(1991), Business organization and the myth the economy. Landers, D.(1986), â€Å"What do bosses really do† The journal of economic history Marglin.S.(1976)’What do bosses do ‘ .In A .Gorz (ed),The division of Labour (Brighton , Harvester)

William Blake’s Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience

Trace how Flake's thought develops from his poem ‘The Lamb' and ‘The Tiger' together- â€Å"l have no name: I am but two days old. † What shall I call thee? â€Å"l happy am, Joy is my name. † Sweet Joy befall thee! † ‘ The good character as well as the bad abstractions such as virtues and vices is framed up in symbols to elaborate their suggestiveness and implications. Flake's cosmology is too large and complex to be given in brief. His symbols help to express his visions which may be obscure to a common reader.Blake says: â€Å"Allegory is addressed to the intellectual powers, while it is altogether hidden from the corporeal. Understanding is my definition of the Most Sublime Poetry. † From this it is clear that in his view poetry is concerned with something else than the phenomenal world and that the only meaner of expressing it is through what he calls ‘allegory. For Blake allegory is a system of symbols which presents events in a spiritual world. The modest Rose puts forth a thorn, The humble Sheep a threatening horn; White the Lily white shall in love delight, Nor a thorn nor a threat stain her beauty bright. † Blake imagined himself under spiritual influences. He saw various forms and heard he voices of angels, fairies, kings of the past and even God; the past and future were before him and he heard in imagination, even the awful voice which called on Adam amongst the trees of the garden. In this kind of dreaming abstraction, he lived much of his life; all his s works are stamped with it.Though this visionary aspect explains much of the mysticism and obscurity of his work, it is also the element that makes his poems singular in loveliness and beauty. It is amazing that he could thus, month after month and year after year, lay down his engraver after it had earned him his lily wages, and retire from s the battle, to his imagination where he could experience scenes of more than-earthly splendor and c reatures pure as unfasten dew. Like Sweeteners, Blake narrates things unheard and unseen; more purely a mystic than Sweeteners, he does not condescend to dialectics and scholastic divinity.Those who fancy that a dozen stony syllogisms seal up the perennial fountain of our deepest questions, will affirm that Flake's belief was an illusion, constant and self-consistent and harmonious with the world throughout the whole of a man's life, cannot differ from much reality. However, it is also important to note hat he was unlike common atheists. â€Å"Selfish Father of Men! Cruel, Jealous, selfish Fear! Can delight, Chained in night, The virgins of youth and morning bear? In the clash of creeds, it is always a comfort to remember that sects with their sectaries, orthodox or otherwise, could not intersect all, if they were not in the same plane. [My spiritual intelligence is certainly becoming confused by your words of conflicting conclusions, therefore ascending one of them; please reveal definitely that by which I may obtain the greatest benefit. ] We find in Flake's poetry many of the elements characterizing Romantic poetry. The world of imagination is the world of Eternity', says Blake.In his championship of liberty, his mysticism, naturalism, idealization of childhood, and simplicity Blake could be called a precursor of Romantic poetry in nineteenth century England. â€Å"Now enjoy†¦. Dip him in the river who loves water†¦.. The busy bee has no time for sorrow†¦.. The most sublime act is to set another before you†¦ The cistern contains: the fountain overflow†¦. † In explaining these lines we waver in interpreting the drops of tears that water the heaven as the outcome of the rage of the defeated rebelling angels or as tears of Eric.If this wrath is one of the two aspects of God, the tiger's cruelty and wildness is only superficially fearful. It can otherwise be construed as a prophetic rage. But after, all wrath and mercy unite at the same point where the ultimate reality of God is felt. There are two meaner for the achievement of the goal, the first being through the ‘innocence' of the lamb and other being through the ‘experience' of the tiger. The close of the poem gives us the clue: the daring of the creator whether God or man is the cleansing wrath of the tiger. Blake is first and foremost a poet of visions and mysticism.But of, his visions are not confined to a narrow streamline of thought about futurity alone; they take the present into consideration and unfold those aspects of contemporary society detrimental to free growth of the mental powers of man. He ridicules the artificial ethos of religion that professes a complete negation of man's sensual life and vehemently argues for a more complete life which combines the senses and the spirit. He probes beneath the surface of things and exposes the roots of social vices, the hidden sores and scars of a tradition-bound society. â€Å"Can a mot her sit and hear An infant groan, and infant fear? No, no! Ever can it be! Never, never can it be! † Flake's maxim that the human soul is made of contrary elements can be applied here also. Indistinct and imagination or the beastly and divine nature of man is necessary for a fuller life of the soul and for its progress. It is a grievous mistake to sanctify the lamb and turn an eye of defiance towards the tiger. Blake opposes such a view and gives equal prominence to sense and soul, the wild and meek aspects of human beings. â€Å"Does spring hide its Joy When buds and blossoms grow? † What holds our attention is not merely the brute's beauty but the mystery and repose behind its creation.In ‘The Lamb' the poet visualizes the holiness of the lamb and child and unifies them with Jesus Christ. It is obvious that the link that connects these figures is ‘innocence'. The harmlessness of the lamb and the purity of the heart of a child are nothing but the manifestat ion of heart nor does he act premeditatedly. The air of innocence is clearly visible on the face of all the three of them. â€Å"How sweet is the Shepherd's sweet lot! From the morn to the evening he strays; He shall follow his sheep all the day, And his tongue shall be filled with praise. †More than this element of innocence there is another thread of connection between the lamb and Christ. Christ refers to himself as the Lamb of God: â€Å"The lamb of God that take away the sin of the world. † In the Bible Christ is referred to both as a lamb and as a shepherd. In this aspect the lamb has a religious significance too. (â€Å"The whole universe is a symbol, and God is the essence behind. † ? Swami Vegetarian ?) ‘The Tiger' displays the poet's excellence in craftsmanship and descriptive skill. In the forest of experience Blake finds the bright- eyed tiger which appears to involve all the cosmic forces.The tiger has made its appearances in the ‘Prophe tic books' of Blake. The poet's reliance in the cosmic and preternatural forces is increasingly exemplified and asserted when he describes the creation and the creator of the tiger. The creator is a supernatural being and not necessarily the Christian God. The creation, according to another elucidation takes place in an extraordinary cosmic commotion. When the constellations turn round in their course there is a move from light to darkness. The pattern and method of asking questions here are quite different from those employed in ‘The Lamb'.In ‘The Tiger' the questions are put in a terrified and awe-inspired tone. It is also held that ‘The Tiger' deals with the colossal problem of evil, but in Blake evil does not exist as an abstract quality. Instead, the evil is embodied in the wrath of God. Christ, like all other Gods, has a dual duty. He punishes the sinners and offenders and loves the followers. Thus Christ or God becomes the God of both love and unkindness. Th e fire is a popular symbol of wrath. Milton and Spencer have described wrath as fire, but we are not to misapprehend Flake's use of wrath as one of the ‘deadly sins' by the miracle and morality plays.Blake finds virtue in wrath and what he describes in the righteous indignation or the wrath of a pious soul. In addition to this, if we also construe the symbolic meaning of the forest, then we can substantiate the meaning of the lines. â€Å"Tiger Tiger burning bright In the forests of the night. † The poet is struck with surprise and awe to behold the wild animal's majestic elegance and grandeur. Its symmetry is fearful and the glow of its eyes is unearthly. When the process of creation is over, â€Å"a terrible beauty is born. † The strength of the animal and its moves/ are its peculiar features.The tiger beyond its superficial tatty is a prototype of God whose harsher aspect is present n the wildness of the creature. It is a contrast and counterpart to the innoce nce of the lamb. The poet wonders: â€Å"Did he who made the Lamb make thee? † In the poem ‘The Tiger' a description of the process of creation is given, but no clarification is given about who the creator is. In the first stanza the creator is described as having wings by which he may have reached the skies to bring the fire for the luster of the wild beast.The creation of the tiger is conveyed in words and phrases which, though meaningful in their totality, do not yield any explicit elucidation of the creator. We sense the strong shoulders thrusting forward in the process of forging the body of the carnivore. The dexterity of the strokes is further conveyed in the ‘dread hand' which is gifted with unprecedented craftsmanship. If the ‘dread feet' and ‘dread hand' are applied to those of the busily engaged creator we can elicit the fact that those limbs are busy in working diligently.At the moment of achieving the perfection of his sublime creation the poem grows tense, the questions are broken in midway and the speaker's hindered gasps let out incomplete harass of exclamation. â€Å"The star floor. The watery shore. Is given thee till the break of day. † In the world of innocence even the meanest creature such as a lamb (which is low only in the eyes of human beings) is treated as having unbound divinity. Here is an exclusive unification of the three characters- Christ, child and the Lamb who constitute the Christian concept of ‘Trinity in the world of innocence. Flake's concept of God is closely aligned to his mysticism.He conceives of God as the very epitome of characteristics which man is capable of developing. If he nurtures these qualities, an can attain godliness-it merely depends on what set of qualities a man develops. A child asks a lamb if it knows its merciful creator, its feeder or the giver of its delightful and coos clothing of fleece. He also asks the lamb whether it knows who gave it its tender voice that fills the valleys with pleasant Joy and music. Quite childlike, the lines â€Å"Little lamb who made thee? Dost thou know who made thee? † are repeated, presumable with wonder in the eyes of the child. The speaker does not wait for any answer.He tells the lamb that its creator is one who is called after the name of the lamb itself. He is one who calls Himself a lamb. He is meek and mild and came on earth as a little child. The poem comes to have a meaningful pause at this juncture. The questions are asked, answers done and the child (or the poet) turns to conclude the lines in a wise hymnal vein or spiritual implication. He says: â€Å"l a child, and thou a lamb, We are called by His name:† Blake intends to suggest that the great purpose of wrath is to consume error, to annihilate those stubborn beliefs which cannot be removed by the tame â€Å"horses of instruction. It is typical of Blake to ask questions when he is overpowered by wonder ND amazement and it is effective especially in the case of this poem, where it results in an â€Å"intense improvisation†. The phrase fearful symmetry- whatever is possible in symbolic suggestions- is clearly the initial puzzle† the ‘symmetry implies an ordering hand or intelligence, the fearful' throws doubt about the benevolence of the creator. The forest of the night' is the darkness out of which the tiger looms brilliant by contrast: They also embody the doubt or confusion that surrounds the origins of the tiger.In the case of the lamb the creator â€Å"is meek and he is mild†:†He became a little hill†. In the case of the tiger creator is again like what he creates. The form that must be supplied Him is now that of the Promethean Smith working violently at the forge. The tiger is an image of the Creator: its dreaded terror must be His. â€Å"In what distant deeps or skies Burnt the fire of thin eyes? On what wings dare he aspire? What the hand dare seize the fire ? † There is scarcely any poem in Songs of Innocence and of Experience which does not have a symbolic or allegorical or allusive implication.Though these poems are rendered in the simplest possible poems is somewhat scriptural- simple and rebound at the same time. The Biblical allusions add prodigious significance to his poems when foe example, we read the ‘The Shepherd' it commemorates Christ as the Good Shepherd and reminds us that the parables are clad in pastoral elements. Without reference to the Bible the poem, ‘The Shepherd' is meaningless and insignificant. Furthermore, Blake makes use of Biblical phrases too, as we see in the poem ‘The Lamb'. Gave thee life, and bid thee feed, By the stream and o'er the mead; Gave thee clothing of delight, Softest clothing, woolly, bright: Gave thee such a tender voice, Making all the vales rejoice? † In Songs of Innocence and of Experience, Flake's symbols are not as obscure or abstruse as we find them in his other poems. In his later poems (Prophetic Books) they are rather incomprehensible. The principal symbols used by Blake have been classified by critics as innocence symbols. Many of these, of course, overlap, and among themselves weave richness into Flake's poetry. Then come home, my children, the sun is gone down, And the dews of night arise†¦ † In the first, the word ‘dews' evokes an image of harmlessness but in the second context it evokes a feeling of chill and damp. In the first there is a feeling that the eight will pass, but in the second poem the word â€Å"dew' assumes further ramifications of meaning. It implies materialism, the philosophy of experience, the indifference to spiritual truth. Knowledge of these symbolic meanings enriches our understanding of the poem. Blake gives his own interpretation to traditional symbols.The rose traditionally associated with love and modesty assumes the aura of ‘sicknesses and disease in Blake for he considered l ove to be free and honest and open in order to be good. The lily's purity assumes added depth in Flake's poetry, not because it is chaste but because it feels honestly. The sun flower's movement with the sun has deep meaning: on the one hand it represents a search for spirituality: on the other, it expresses regret for being attached to the ground. The simple vocabulary and movement of Flake's verse should not lull us into a feeling that the thought too is childish.Indeed there is a complex thread of syllogism in his poetry that gives multiple layers of meaning to his words. Sometimes this syllogism even lends obscurity to his poems because it evolves out of Flake's own system of symbols. The manner in a particular mood is a remarkable illustrated in the ‘Nurse's Songs' in Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience occur in both poems: yet the feelings evoked because of the accompanying words are in sharp contrast. â€Å"To this day they dwell In a lonely dell. Nor fear the w olfish howl Nor the lion's growl. The world of ‘Experience' welcomes a child of sorrow, who rather than being a fiend himself is also born into a monstrous world of totems and taboos. Strange to notice, it is not actually upon the growing boy that the shadows of prison house close; on the other hand, the shadows spread on the infant at the moment of birth itself. Predictably enough, there is no scope of a ‘heaven' lying about its infancy. Its struggle begins from the very moment of its birth, it is choked from the very start of its life and it finds its only rest on its mother's breast.As a contrast to ‘Infant Joy here the child is not a ‘Joy but a fiend' and neither its mother nor the father, though it is not explicit from Flake's poem, accords a warm s welcome to him. The child hides behind the cloud. The speaker is evidently the child himself who laments against life. â€Å"But to go to school in a summer morn, Oh! It drives all Joy away Under a cruel eye outworn The little ones spend the day In sighing and dismay. † Admittedly, the poem brings out Flake's ideas on love and hints at his well-known belief that sex is not sinful.For Blake nakedness is a symbol of pure innocence and he lauds uninhabited love. The Golden Age is that in which the people have love for their fellowmen and mingle with one another freely. In the Golden Age love is not a crime but a grace and beauty signaling unbridled innocence, but in the present age the most tender sentiments are frozen by the trembling fear' coming from the cruel eyes of experience. â€Å"In every cry of every Man In every Infant's cry of fear In every voice, in every ban The mind-forged manacles I hear. Flake's vision of man in Songs of Experience, especially with reference to ‘A Divine Image' can be summed up as, The human dress is forge iron The human form is a fiery forge, The human face a furnace sealed, The human heart its hungry gorge. † The poem ‘A Divine Image' is a contrast to ‘The Divine Image' in its very title. In ‘The Divine Image', the definite article ‘The' shows the real, one and only Divine Image. In ‘A Divine Image' the indefinite article ‘A' points at a particular divine image which has a unique growth.The contrast is also visible in the two stanzas of these two poems. â€Å"For Mercy has a human heart, Pity a human face, And Love the human form divine. Love, Mercy, Pity, Peace†¦ † Can be seen as a stark contrast to the lines of ‘A Divine Image' that run as: â€Å"Cruelty has a human heart And Jealousy a human face; Terror the human form divine And Secrecy the human dress. † This is truly terrifying. His soul (the human form) is burning with frightfulness within the iron body of secrecy (the condition of deceit; his face is a furnace sealed up wherein Jealousy rages; his heart is recklessly cruel.The imagery is similar to that of ‘The Tiger', but where the Tiger had broken all bounds as a symbol of regeneration, man is here imprisoned in a ‘dress' of an iron suit, of his own forging; and all his energies burn within it, consuming him. â€Å"For I dance, And strength and breadth, And the want Of thought is death;† Blake is not merely a revolutionary thinker on man's physical or corporeal freedom; he is also one who broods over the spiritual freedom or spiritual salvation of mankind.The former point, showing Blake as a humanitarian, cans be well understood from poems such as ‘The Chimney-sweeper', ‘Holy Thursday and ‘A little Girl Lost'. In all these cases Flake's fury makes him lash out at the hypocrisy of man and the society that enslaves children to utter lifelessness. In ‘Holy Thursday Flake's sympathetic and compassionate heart shares the agony of the children and his pent up feelings are let out through an ironical comment: â€Å"Beneath them sit the aged men wise guardians of the poor, Then cheris h pity, lest you drive an angel from your door. William Blake is considered a precursor of Romantic Movement in English Literature. Romanticism laid considerable stress on the elements of imagination, tauter worship, humanitarianism, liberty, mysticism and symbolism. It differed from the outlook expounded by the preceding age of Neo classicism which promoted the notion of reason, balance and logic with regard to prose and poetry. The Romantic creed of poetry rests on recording the simple emotions of humanity in a simple diction. Recollections of childhood (nostalgia) are also a common subject of Romanticism. When the voice of children are heard on the green And whisperings are in the dale, The days of my youth rise fresh in my mind, My face turns green and pale. † But of, the flood of feelings gains more fury in the poem of the same title in Songs of Experience: â€Å"Is this a holy thing to see In a rich and fruitful land. Babes reduced to misery, Fed with cold and usurious hand? † With vehemence Blake argues for the freedom of human energy too. He deplores any religion that denies sexual and emotional life of man. Virility and vigor are divine and its free play should never be hindered. He is called by thy name, For he calls Himself a Lamb. He is meek, and He is mild; He became a little child. † Many of Flake's poems celebrate the divinity and innocence of not merely the child UT also the least harmless of creatures on earth, namely the lamb. The child asks the lamb if it knows who has created out. The child does not wait but answers his questions himself. He does so, we feel, not because the lamb cannot communicate, but because the child is so enthusiastic and eager to mention the creator and his virtues.He refers to the meekness of Christ, his glorious infancy as well as his reference to himself as a lamb. He concludes with a reference to his own and the lamb's affinity to God and thus establishes their oneness. Qualities of simplicity, innocence and divinity are extended even to the world of animals and the innocent creatures like the lamb are raised from their level of lowness in the human eye. Both the child and Christ are unified with the lamb and the three forms the Trinity on earth. â€Å"Tiger! Tiger! Burning bright In the forest of the night, What immortal hand or eye Dare frame thy fearful symmetry? In ‘The Shepherd' the Shepherd is depicted as enjoying vast freedom, and his fortune is praised. He is so fortunate that he can wander about in carefree way wherever he chooses and sing in praise of God. Not only is he always near his lambs, listening to heir innocent cries, bleats and answering bleats ,but he is never exposed to the world of ‘Experience' where he may be startled by roars of cruelty and fierceness. This is a simple pastoral poem in which liberty and freedom are praised. We are again brought to realize the affinity of lamb and innocence. Frowning, frowning night, O'er this desert br ight Let the moon arise, While I close my eyes. † The pastoral convention, which represents the occupations of shepherds in an idealized way, against an idealized country background had to face severe criticism in the eighteenth century because of its unreality. It was held that men and women were neither so Joyful nor carefree, nor so innocent, as they were represented; but according to Blake, young children do have these qualities, they live in a golden world of their own. This convention is used by Blake to give us an insight into childhood, and one ‘state of human soul'.In the poem, the poet tells us about the valley along which he goes piping and about his sudden meeting with a child. The child bids him pipe a song about a lamb- another pastoral element. The ‘pipe' is a conventional pastoral musical organ on which the shepherds play melodiously as the sheep graze. It is also worth nothing that when the child appeals to him to write down the song, the poet says â€Å"And I plucked a hollow reed, And I made a rural pen And I stained the water clear, And I wrote my happy songs Every child may Joy to hear. The phrase ‘reed', ‘rural pen' and Water clear' contributes much to the elements of pastorals or rustic innocence. In the so-called world of experience, callousness, tyranny and insincerity await the blithe new-comer and subject him to an entire transformation. The child -turned-youth experiences a curb on his spontaneous instincts, by the repelling codes of social moralities and etiquette. There is hypocrisy in full swing and there is cruelty. In this unsanitary forge, he is reshaped and bestowed with an altered outlook. He is no more the rollicking child.His fertile imagination yields to the aged atrophied intellect and mature reason. He is in fact fallen' or ‘lapsed'- fallen from his primordial abode of life. â€Å"What the hammer? What the chain? The two diverse natures- Innocence and Experience are essential for th e ultimate salvation of his soul. From experience man moves to a world of higher innocence. Blake seems to argue that Joy and peace, which man had experienced in his holding, can have solid foundations only if man has experienced and overcome the impediments and unpleasant realities which day to-day life presents.That is to say, to attain a higher innocence man must be tested by suffering and misery, physical as well as emotional; he must go through the actual experience of life. Through the state of childhood innocence is charming; it is not prefect and cannot last long. For spiritual elevation, lessons from both experience and innocence are essential. â€Å"And it bears the fruit of Deceit, Ruddy and sweet to eat: And the raven his nest has made In its thickest shade. † Flake's The Tiger blends child-like innocence with adult wisdom.The child-like innocence is revealed in the volley of questions and exclamations about the fearful symmetry of the tiger's body and the reactio ns of the stars and God to the tiger's creation. Like the innocent child the poet wonders to know who framed the tiger's body, fearful but well-proportioned: â€Å"What immortal hand or eye Could frame thy fearful symmetry? † The following volley of questions bears the stamp of child-like innocence: â€Å"Shades of the prison-house begin to close Upon the growing boy. †Like a child not contaminated by the evils of experience the poet is curious to know what instruments were used to frame the tiger's â€Å"fearful symmetry'. With the innocence of the child the poet thinks that the angels were so amazed to see the fearful tiger created that they threw down their spears and wept. He also wonders if God smiled with satisfaction to see his new creation (I. E. The tiger) – the wondering that becomes a child. Uniform spring and your day are wasted in play, And your winter and night in disguise. † With this child-like innocence is blended adult wisdom. The Tiger expresses the sadism (I. . Experience) that comes of age that becomes a man who has gone through his life. The wisdom sought to be conveyed is as follows. Man passes from innocence to experience. And for experience man has to pay a bitter price not merely in such unimportant things as comfort and peace of mind, but in the highest spiritual values. Experience debases and perverts noble desire. It destroys the state of childlike innocence and puts destructive forces in its place. It breaks the free life of imagination and substitutes a dark, cold, imprisoning fear, and the result is a deadly low to blithe human spirit.The fear and denial of life which come with experience breed hypocrisy which is as grave a sin as cruelty. To destroy these forces of experiences the benign creator assumes the role of a malignant creator. In the scheme of things the tiger is as much a necessity as the lamb. So the God who created the lamb also created tiger. In other words, is not only a God of mercy, b ut also a God of wrath, the creator of Satan and social and political cataclysms. Flake's conception of God here betrays a striking similarity with the Hondo hydrological Avatar theory. Round the laps of their mothers Many sisters and brothers, Like birds in their nest, Are ready for rest; And sport no more seen On the darkening Green. † It is indispensable that the boy who enjoyed full freedom and liberty in innocence ought to pass into experience. This is because the design of human life gives prominence to the contrariety of human nature without which there is no ‘progression'. A complete life on earth meaner the life of innocence and experience. Without experience or innocence the life cycle is incomplete and imperfect.The memos of Songs of Innocence and of Experience are based on this viewpoint of contrariety. â€Å"Why of the sheep do you not learn peace Because I don't want you to shear my fleece. † ‘The Tiger' is typically representative of the most characteristic features of ‘experience' which in the poetic context of Blake involves deep meaning. From this powerful symbol we construe that Blake was a devotee of energy which, for him, was an aspect of true divinity. In this poem the poet's irrepressible curiosity at the extraordinarily exquisite creation of God finds its vent in small broken questions.After wondering at the symmetry of its body and stripes, the luster of its eyes, the strong muscles, elegant paws and its powerful strides, the poet turns to the reaction of the creator when he beholds his own creation. The poet says that God may have smiled at the surrender of the rebelling angels at his own master craftsmanship in the creation of the tiger. The ‘stars' are the rebellious angels under Satan. When they failed to defeat God and were beaten they threw down their spears as in surrender and moaned for their defeat. It is after this event that God started creating inhabitants for the earth.So, at the time o f the defeat of the rebelling angels, God might have Just finished the creation of the awesome tiger and smiled on his hidden purpose behind all his acts. â€Å"Because I was happy upon the heath, And smiled among the winter's snow, They clothed me in the clothed of death, And taught me to sing the notes of woe. † ‘The Lamb' is the most significant poem in the section of Innocence not merely because it propounds the idea of innocence in the simplest way, but also because here we notice the poet extending the world of innocence even to the animals that re insignificant and base in the human eye.In this poem we see a child patting a lamb and asking if it knows who the giver of its life and brad is. He asks it whether it knows who has given it the silken fleece immaculate white and thin voice of its bleat. The child himself answers his questions. He defines the Almighty God as who is known after the name of his lamb who is meek and gentle. Since God descended to the earth as infant Jesus he is also called a child. The child, lamb and God are all brought to unite to form a single divine entity. The essence of the poem lies in these

Todays Driveres Have Dangerous Habits Essays

Todays Driveres Have Dangerous Habits Essays Todays Driveres Have Dangerous Habits Essay Todays Driveres Have Dangerous Habits Essay November. 12, 2013 Todays Drivers Have Dangerous Habits Many of todays drivers have dangerous driving habits. One does not have to travel far to see people driving with risky driving techniques. Bad drivers have dangerous driving habits and they can be observed on highways and in residential streets. In contract, good driving habits. Both affect our lives in different ways. Good drivers always care about the safety rules. Moreover, they follow them. Wearing a safety belts on, Doors locked, headlights on, and make smooth, gradual starts and stops. When driving a motor vehicle there can be many hazards, which all motorists should be ready to respond to in each situation? Some of these hazards include: bad weather, drunk driving, road construction, unaware drivers, car troubles and too many others to mention. A lot of the hazards can be very dangerous to all motorists, but most can be avoided. Dangerous drivers kill people and destroy property every day. Younger drivers can be dangerous drivers simply because they lack experience driving in various environments, such as driving at night, or driving on interstate highways. But there are drivers from all age groups that have dangerous driving habits. Even older drivers are sometimes dangerous because their senses and reflexes are not as good as they were. While driving in town or on the highway, it is rare not to see someone driving while talking on your cell phone. Driving while talking on a cell phone not only takes your concentration away from the road, it also takes your eyes away from the road. Technology has added to dangerous driving habits. Cell phones especially. Theyre now more popular than ever. Im pretty sure half of the wrecks that occur by todays oung people are because of cell phones. Everyone wants to talk and text while driving, not thinking that it could be you or another persons cause of death. Because of this many people have started to use a hands-free device. Hands-free devices will allow you to keep both hands on the wheel. However, it does not change the distractions involved with being on the phone while driving. And it doesnt help at all with text messaging. So to be honest the best way to prevent this situation is to not use the phone while driving at all. Bad drivers Just dont care about time. Theyre acing at incredible speeds tailgating Just to reach the red light. They are always in a hurry to get nowhere. Thus, they create a traffic Jam Just to go to the mall and have a cup of coffee. Most people drive under the influence of alcohol. We hear about kids being killed by drunk driving or eating and driving. There are Just so many that people do while driving that endangers people around them and we might not even realize it until its too late. In Conclusion, there is an old saying Good habits are as hard to break as bad habitslf you have dangerous drinking habits you can change hem by applying good driving skills for a few weeks. After a few weeks, many of these good driving techniques will become your new habits time is very essential for any driver or person intending to drive. Planning it and ensuring that all the required activities of the day are achieved with none at the expense of others is very crucial at all times tnereTore, orlvers must rememoer tnat engaging In otner actlvltles Ilke cell phone, eating, putting make up and having myths on how roads should be used are very dangerous as they end up distracting ones attention hence resulting to accidents.

Sustainable Tourism Development Essay Example

Sustainable Tourism Development Essay Example Sustainable Tourism Development Essay Sustainable Tourism Development Essay 1993). Faced with the dramatic growth in international tourism from the 25 million trips of 1950 (WTO, 1993) to the 531 million of 1994 (WTO, 1995a) and its continued predicted growth (WTO, l995b), the replacement of mass tourism with the sustainable tourism promoted by the two positions was illogical. Being small scale, sustainable tourism lacked the capability (Butler, A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism 227 Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 1990; Cohen, 1987; Cooper et al. , 1993; Fennell Smale, 1992; Pearce, 1992). Sustainable tourism could neither manage the number of arrivals nor replace the economic benefits accrued (Butler, 1992; Cohen, 1987). For Wheeller (1990, l991a, l991b), the idea was a ‘micro solution’ struggling with a ‘macro problem’. Furthermore, this understanding was inward-looking, failing to recognise the importance of other industry sectors and the wider perspective of sustainable development (Hunter, 1995). Indeed, the second pair of positions better demonstrate the influence of the sustainable development landmarks that shaped the concept (for example, IUCN, 1980, 1991; The World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987; the GLOBE ’90 and ’92 conferences; The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development with Agenda 21). Other criticisms concerned issues such as elitism (Cazes, 1989; Richter, 1987), the problems of ensuring local ownership and control (Cater, 1992), and inbalances in power (Wheeller, 1990, l991a, l991b). Butler (1990) argued that the approach to sustainable tourism portrayed a static picture of impacts. The revision of features related to time and process produced a less flattering scenario (Butler, 1990). For example, the more intense contact between host and guest over a longer duration resulted in greater damage to the fragile host culture than was readily apparent in the ‘good’ versus ‘bad’ tables. The emergence of these tables was partly a response to an over-simplistic interpretation of Krippendorf’s work (1982, 1987). Krippendorf (1987) was not opposed to mass tourism as long as it progressed towards ‘harmonious’ tourism. In fact, he urged that: only if we succeed in living with tourism as a mass phenomenon, ? , can we claim to have made a decisive step forward, (Krippendorf, 1982: 111, author’s emphasis) an assertion often overlooked by proponents of a polar opposite or continuum approach. The third position of movement Criticisms of the earlier understandings of sustainable tourism, coupled with a closer alignment to sustainable development, resulted in the demand to change mass tourism to more sustainable forms (see, for example, Bramwell, 1991; Butler, 1990, 1991; Cohen, 1987; De Kadt, 1990; GLOBE, 1990; EIU, 1992). If the main problem of modern tourism is that of its huge number, (Krippendorf, 1987: 42, author’s emphasis) then mass tourism was the most visible and sensible candidate for initial reform. The sustainable tourism as understood under movement differed from the earlier definitions of sustainable tourism on three key dimensions: Â · The issue of scale became more objective and less emotive. Mass tourism became the subject for improvement, rather than the derided villain. Â · Sustainable tourism became the goal for attainment, rather than the possession of an existing scale of tourism. Operationalising current knowledge to move towards the goal became the 228 Journal of Sustainable Tourism (’mass tourism’) Large scale tourism Sustainable Tourism Goal Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 Figure 3 Position 3: movement practical focus of effort, rather than the ‘is it or isn’t it sustainable tourism’ debate of previous years. F igure 3 illustrates the understanding of sustainable tourism by movement advocates. As a label, large scale tourism is preferred to mass tourism, for it sheds the negative connotations. Viewed objectively, large scale tourism possesses strengths which could be used to advantage: Â · The environment is attacked by other industries, such as mining and manufacturing (EIU, 1992; McKercher, 1993), and tourism is dependent on environmental quality. The tourism industry must protect its assets; size is important, as large players exert pressure through lobbying power. Â · Large scale operators have the marketing and communication skills, plus contact opportunities in bulk, to actively foster interest in sustainable tourism amongst the millions of consumers who purchase their products. Large size confers influence over suppliers and distributors, which could be used as a persuasive force for the introduction of sustainable policies along the supply chain. Of course, there are less altruistic reasons for large scale tourism to instigate movement towards the sustainable tourism goal. The imposition of environmental regulatory control by governments grappling with world prob lems of acid rain, ozone layer depletion and global warming require a minimum response of compliance. From the demand side, the rise of consumer interest in green issues (see ETB, 1992a, 1992b; Green, 1990) provides the classic incentive of consumer needs. The interest expressed by consumers through financial institutions in environmental practices is a further motive. There are over thirty an ag em en im ts pa ct ys -e as nv ses tem iro nm s s re ent men use t al Guid , re au eline cyc di s for le, red t susta uce inab le to urism Equity Company/organisation focus ta lm s pac im cts al pa lob G im al sic y ph al/ gic olo Ec (’sustainable tourism’) Small scale tourism iro nm en En v -e nv iro nm e nt al A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism 229 Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 environmental or ethical funds in the United Kingdom, representing approximately ? 750 million of investment; according to independent financial advisors Holden Meehan (1994), the idea of ‘profit with principle’ has moved from the fringe to the mains tream. Investors are stakeholders requiring satisfaction. There are many examples of large scale tourism proactively moving towards the goal of sustainable tourism (see Middleton Hawkins, 1993, 1994; WTTERC, 1991–1994). British Airways was one of the first tourism companies to publish an environmental report (British Airways, 1991), the International Hotels Environment Initiative was a sector-specific project (Van Praag, 1992), whilst the ‘Green Globe’ programme was targeted across the tourism sectors (WTTERC, 1994). The World Travel Tourism Council, a coalition of Chief Executive Officers from international tourism companies, established the World Travel Tourism Environment Research Centre (WTTERC) to monitor, assess and communicate objectives, strategies and action programmes in respect of environmental management (WTTERC, 1992). Over one hundred guidelines and codes of practice relating to tourism were identified (WTTERC, 1993); the environmental guidelines of the WTTERC itself provide a useful synopsis of the large scale understanding of sustainable tourism (WTTERC, 1992). As Figure 3 demonstrates, the focus of this approach is on the physical/ecological environment, with an emphasis on environmental management systems, incorporating techniques such as environmental audits of products, processes and issues, and environmental impact assessments. The fourth position of convergence The framework culminates in a position of convergence (see Figure 4). This position represents the latest understanding of sustainable tourism as a goal that all tourism, regardless of scale, must strive to achieve (see, for example, Inskeep, 1991). Accepting that the concept of sustainable tourism is still evolving, the absence of a precise goal definition is less important than general movement in the correct direction. Appreciating the wider role of sustainable development, this final position recognises two interpretations of sustainable tourism. The large scale interpretation of sustainable tourism (as portrayed in position three) has a dominantly physical/ecological perspective expressed as a business orientation. The small scale interpretation of sustainable tourism offers a social slant from a local or destination platform. It is akin to the understanding of sustainable tourism as alternative tourism under position one, except for the crucial recognition of the concept as a goal rather than a possession. Both interpretations: Â · focus on the implementation of their current knowledge of sustainable tourism to move towards the ultimate goal of sustainability; Â · seek future progress towards the desired goal through the twin processes of further development of ideas inherent in their own interpretation and by adaptation of ideas found in the other. Together, this results in convergence towards the goal of sustainable tourism. For example, in this quest, large scale tourism is experimenting with techniques for inducing shifts in tourist behaviour compatible with environmentallyfriendly travel, an educational component instigated by the small scale enterprises. Thomsons now provide environmental guidelines for guests; TUI 230 Journal of Sustainable Tourism Downloaded by [113. 210. 1. 106] at 07:28 22 March 2013 Large scale tourism al nm vi ro En Figure 4 Position 4: convergence ave produced an environment ranking for products featured in all their mainstream Euro-brochures. In turn, small scale enterprises are learning about the development of effective environmental management systems, originally the territory of large scale organisations. In the UK, the environmental audit was promoted for small scale concerns by the West Country Tourist Board’s (1993) ‘Green Audit Kit’; the project was then taken nationwide . In addition, by embracing sustainable development, both interpretations are receptive to further ideas generated from outside the tourism sector. Like large scale tourism (see position three), the small scale interpretation of sustainable tourism has produced guidelines and codes of good practice (see, for example, ETB, 1991; Countryside Commission, 1991; Green, 1990), established destination-based projects (for example, the Devon-based Tarka Project) and offered and disseminated advice to interested parties (ETB, 1992a, 1992b, 1993). -e nv iro nm en ta l en t im g olo Ec m an ag em y ph al/ ic al sic en ts pa ct ys -e as nv s e s te m ir o nm sm s re en use tal ent Guid , re au eline cyc s for le, r dit sust edu aina ce ble t ouri sm Equity Company/organisation focus ba Gl p l im s act p im Sustainable Tourism Goal ts ac Local area identity focus Equity Guid e Loc lines for al c sust ont aina Ed rol ble t uc ouri ati To sm on u of Au ris hos tc th t/to e n ha r uri tic act st ity eri s ti cs s act ts mp pac y al i rit ultur l im a c teg loc In o cial/ tion/ a S stin De Small scale tourism A Framework of Approaches to Sustain able Tourism 231 The completed framework Taken as a whole, the framework both structures and partially explains some of the conflicts and debates that have occurred in sustainable tourism. Although due regard should be given to the limitations of a framework based purely on a literature review and purporting to be complementary in nature rather than encompassing, it does present insights to past development whilst taking a view as to the direction of future advances. References Beioley, S. (1995) Green tourism: Soft or sustainable? English Tourist Board Insights, B75–B89. Boo, E. (1990) Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls. Washington, DC: World Wide Fund for Nature. Brackenbury, M. (1992) Ecotourism: Introduction to ecotourism - A sustainable option? The Bulletin of the Tourism Society 76, 10–12. Bramwell, B. 1991) Tourism environments and management. Tourism Management 12 (4), 363–4. British Airways (1991) British Airways Environmental Review: Heathrow and Worldwide Flying Operations. London: British Airways and Tecnica. Brown, F. (1991) Alternative tourism. English Tourist Board Insights, D27–D29. Buckley, R. (1993) International Cent re for Ecotourism Research. 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Naturopa 59, 25–7. Valentine, P. S. (1993) Ecotourism and nature conservation. Tourism Management 14 (2), 107–15. Van Praag, H. J. (1992) Industrial leadership: A practical example in the hotel industry. Tourism and the Environment: Challenges and Choices for the 90s, November, 62–66. West Country Tourist Board (1993) Green Audit Kit. Exeter: WCTB. Wheeller, B. (1990) Is sustainable tourism appropriate? In F. Howie (ed. ) The Proceedings of the Sustainable Tourism Development Conference. Edinburgh, Queen Margaret College, November. Wheeller, B. (199la) Is progressive tourism appropriate? Tourism and Hospitality Management: Established Disciplines or Ten Year Wonders? Guildford: University of Surrey. Wheeller, B. (199lb) Tourism’s troubled times: Responsible tourism is not the answer. Tourism Management 12 (2), 91–6. Wight, P. (1995) Sustainable ecotourism: Balancing economic, environmental and social goals within an ethical framework. Tourism Recreation Research 20 (1), 5–13. 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